Background


Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when He said Poenitentiam agite, willed that the whole life of believers should be repentance.
This word cannot be understood to mean sacramental penance, i.e., confession and satisfaction, which is administered by the priests.
Yet it means not inward repentance only; nay, there is no inward repentance which does not outwardly work divers mortifications of the flesh.
The penalty [of sin], therefore, continues so long as hatred of self continues; for this is the true inward repentance, and continues until our entrance into the kingdom of heaven.
The pope does not intend to remit, and cannot remit any penalties other than those which he has imposed either by his own authority or by that of the Canons.
The pope cannot remit any guilt, except by declaring that it has been remitted by God and by assenting to God's remission; though, to be sure, he may grant remission in cases reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission in such cases were despised, the guilt would remain entirely unforgiven.
God remits guilt to no one whom He does not, at the same time, humble in all things and bring into subjection to His vicar, the priest.
The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and, according to them, nothing should be imposed on the dying.
Therefore the Holy Spirit in the pope is kind to us, because in his decrees he always makes exception of the article of death and of necessity.
Ignorant and wicked are the doings of those priests who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penances for purgatory.
This changing of the canonical penalty to the penalty of purgatory is quite evidently one of the tares that were sown while the bishops slept.
In former times the canonical penalties were imposed not after, but before absolution, as tests of true contrition.
The dying are freed by death from all penalties; they are already dead to canonical rules, and have a right to be released from them.
The imperfect health [of soul], that is to say, the imperfect love, of the dying brings with it, of necessity, great fear; and the smaller the love, the greater is the fear.
This fear and horror is sufficient of itself alone (to say nothing of other things) to constitute the penalty of purgatory, since it is very near to the horror of despair.
Hell, purgatory, and heaven seem to differ as do despair, almost-despair, and the assurance of safety.
With souls in purgatory it seems necessary that horror should grow less and love increase.
It seems unproved, either by reason or Scripture, that they are outside the state of merit, that is to say, of increasing love.
Again, it seems unproved that they, or at least that all of them, are certain or assured of their own blessedness, though we may be quite certain of it.
Therefore by "full remission of all penalties" the pope means not actually "of all," but only of those imposed by himself.
Therefore those preachers of indulgences are in error, who say that by the pope's indulgences a man is freed from every penalty, and saved;
Whereas he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which, according to the canons, they would have had to pay in this life.
If it is at all possible to grant to any one the remission of all penalties whatsoever, it is certain that this remission can be granted only to the most perfect, that is, to the very fewest.
It must needs be, therefore, that the greater part of the people are deceived by that indiscriminate and highsounding promise of release from penalty.
The power which the pope has, in a general way, over purgatory, is just like the power which any bishop or curate has, in a special way, within his own diocese or parish.
The pope does well when he grants remission to souls [in purgatory], not by the power of the keys (which he does not possess), but by way of intercession.
They preach man who say that so soon as the penny jingles into the money-box, the soul flies out [of purgatory].
It is certain that when the penny jingles into the money-box, gain and avarice can be increased, but the result of the intercession of the Church is in the power of God alone.
Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory wish to be bought out of it, as in the legend of Sts. Severinus and Paschal.
No one is sure that his own contrition is sincere; much less that he has attained full remission.
Rare as is the man that is truly penitent, so rare is also the man who truly buys indulgences, i.e., such men are most rare.
They will be condemned eternally, together with their teachers, who believe themselves sure of their salvation because they have letters of pardon.
Men must be on their guard against those who say that the pope's pardons are that inestimable gift of God by which man is reconciled to Him;
For these "graces of pardon" concern only the penalties of sacramental satisfaction, and these are appointed by man.
They preach no Christian doctrine who teach that contrition is not necessary in those who intend to buy souls out of purgatory or to buy confessionalia.
Every truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without letters of pardon.
Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has part in all the blessings of Christ and the Church; and this is granted him by God, even without letters of pardon.
Nevertheless, the remission and participation [in the blessings of the Church] which are granted by the pope are in no way to be despised, for they are, as I have said, the declaration of divine remission.
It is most difficult, even for the very keenest theologians, at one and the same time to commend to the people the abundance of pardons and [the need of] true contrition.
True contrition seeks and loves penalties, but liberal pardons only relax penalties and cause them to be hated, or at least, furnish an occasion [for hating them].
Apostolic pardons are to be preached with caution, lest the people may falsely think them preferable to other good works of love.
Christians are to be taught that the pope does not intend the buying of pardons to be compared in any way to works of mercy.
Christians are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to the needy does a better work than buying pardons;
Because love grows by works of love, and man becomes better; but by pardons man does not grow better, only more free from penalty.
Christians are to be taught that he who sees a man in need, and passes him by, and gives [his money] for pardons, purchases not the indulgences of the pope, but the indignation of God.
Christians are to be taught that unless they have more than they need, they are bound to keep back what is necessary for their own families, and by no means to squander it on pardons.
Christians are to be taught that the buying of pardons is a matter of free will, and not of commandment.
Christians are to be taught that the pope, in granting pardons, needs, and therefore desires, their devout prayer for him more than the money they bring.
Christians are to be taught that the pope's pardons are useful, if they do not put their trust in them; but altogether harmful, if through them they lose their fear of God.
Christians are to be taught that if the pope knew the exactions of the pardon-preachers, he would rather that St. Peter's church should go to ashes, than that it should be built up with the skin, flesh and bones of his sheep.
Christians are to be taught that it would be the pope's wish, as it is his duty, to give of his own money to very many of those from whom certain hawkers of pardons cajole money, even though the church of St. Peter might have to be sold.
The assurance of salvation by letters of pardon is vain, even though the commissary, nay, even though the pope himself, were to stake his soul upon it.
They are enemies of Christ and of the pope, who bid the Word of God be altogether silent in some Churches, in order that pardons may be preached in others.
Injury is done the Word of God when, in the same sermon, an equal or a longer time is spent on pardons than on this Word.
It must be the intention of the pope that if pardons, which are a very small thing, are celebrated with one bell, with single processions and ceremonies, then the Gospel, which is the very greatest thing, should be preached with a hundred bells, a hundred processions, a hundred ceremonies.
The "treasures of the Church," out of which the pope. grants indulgences, are not sufficiently named or known among the people of Christ.
That they are not temporal treasures is certainly evident, for many of the vendors do not pour out such treasures so easily, but only gather them.
Nor are they the merits of Christ and the Saints, for even without the pope, these always work grace for the inner man, and the cross, death, and hell for the outward man.
St. Lawrence said that the treasures of the Church were the Church's poor, but he spoke according to the usage of the word in his own time.
Without rashness we say that the keys of the Church, given by Christ's merit, are that treasure;
For it is clear that for the remission of penalties and of reserved cases, the power of the pope is of itself sufficient.
The true treasure of the Church is the Most Holy Gospel of the glory and the grace of God.
But this treasure is naturally most odious, for it makes the first to be last.
On the other hand, the treasure of indulgences is naturally most acceptable, for it makes the last to be first.
Therefore the treasures of the Gospel are nets with which they formerly were wont to fish for men of riches.
The treasures of the indulgences are nets with which they now fish for the riches of men.
The indulgences which the preachers cry as the "greatest graces" are known to be truly such, in so far as they promote gain.
Yet they are in truth the very smallest graces compared with the grace of God and the piety of the Cross.
Bishops and curates are bound to admit the commissaries of apostolic pardons, with all reverence.
But still more are they bound to strain all their eyes and attend with all their ears, lest these men preach their own dreams instead of the commission of the pope.
He who speaks against the truth of apostolic pardons, let him be anathema and accursed!
But he who guards against the lust and license of the pardon-preachers, let him be blessed!
The pope justly thunders against those who, by any art, contrive the injury of the traffic in pardons.
But much more does he intend to thunder against those who use the pretext of pardons to contrive the injury of holy love and truth.
To think the papal pardons so great that they could absolve a man even if he had committed an impossible sin and violated the Mother of God
We say, on the contrary, that the papal pardons are not able to remove the very least of venial sins, so far as its guilt is concerned.
It is said that even St. Peter, if he were now Pope, could not bestow greater graces; this is blasphemy against St. Peter and against the pope.
We say, on the contrary, that even the present pope, and any pope at all, has greater graces at his disposal; to wit, the Gospel, powers, gifts of healing, etc., as it is written in I. Corinthians xii.
To say that the cross, emblazoned with the papal arms, which is set up [by the preachers of indulgences], is of equal worth with the Cross of Christ, is blasphemy.
The bishops, curates and theologians who allow such talk to be spread among the people, will have an account to render.
This unbridled preaching of pardons makes it no easy matter, even for learned men, to rescue the reverence due to the pope from slander, or even from the shrewd questionings of the laity.
To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial."
Again: -- "Why are mortuary and anniversary masses for the dead continued, and why does he not return or permit the withdrawal of the endowments founded on their behalf, since it is wrong to pray for the redeemed?"
Again: -- "What is this new piety of God and the pope, that for money they allow a man who is impious and their enemy to buy out of purgatory the pious soul of a friend of God, and do not rather, because of that pious and beloved soul's own need, free it for pure love's sake?"
Again: -- "Why are the penitential canons long since in actual fact and through disuse abrogated and dead, now satisfied by the granting of indulgences, as though they were still alive and in force?"
Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?"
Again: -- "What is it that the pope remits, and what participation does he grant to those who, by perfect contrition, have a right to full remission and participation?"
Again: -- "What greater blessing could come to the Church than if the pope were to do a hundred times a day what he now does once, and bestow on every believer these remissions and participations?"
"Since the pope, by his pardons, seeks the salvation of souls rather than money, why does he suspend the indulgences and pardons granted heretofore, since these have equal efficacy?"
To repress these arguments and scruples of the laity by force alone, and not to resolve them by giving reasons, is to expose the Church and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies, and to make Christians unhappy.
If, therefore, pardons were preached according to the spirit and mind of the pope, all these doubts would be readily resolved; nay, they would not exist.
Away, then, with all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Peace, peace," and there is no peace!
Blessed be all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Cross, cross," and there is no cross!
Christians are to be exhorted that they be diligent in following Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and hell;
And thus be confident of entering into heaven rather through many tribulations, than through the assurance of peace. The 95 Theses
According to a report written by Philipp Melanchthon in 1546, Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses on the doors of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany, October 31, 1517. Some scholars have questioned the accuracy of this account, noting that no contemporaneous evidence exists for it.

Reaction to the Ninety-five Theses

Erwin Iserloh The Theses Were Not Posted: Luther Between Reform and Reformation. trans. by Jared Wicks, S.J.. Boston: Beacon Press, 1968.

The Utah House of Representatives is the lower body of the Utah State Legislature.

Make-up of the House of Representatives
Further information: 57th Utah State Legislature and List of Utah State Legislatures

Officers
Further information: Utah Republican Party

Majority Leader: Dave Clark (R-74)
Majority Whip: Gordon Snow (R-54)
Assistant Majority Whip: Brad Dee (R-11)
House Rules Committee Chair: Stephen H. Urquhart (R-75) Majority Leadership
Further information: Utah Democratic Party

Minority Leader: Ralph Becker (D-24)
Minority Whip: Brad King (D-69)
Assistant Minority Whip: Carol Spackman Moss (D-37)
Minority Caucus Manager: David Litvack (D-26) Current Members

Utah State Senate
List of Utah State Legislatures
Utah Republican Party
Utah Democratic Party

The Apollo program was the third human spaceflight program undertaken by NASA, on behalf of the United States of America. Its goal — "...before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth," (as U.S. President John F. Kennedy announced in 1961) — was accomplished on July 20, 1969, with the Apollo 11 landing of astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, and with Michael Collins orbiting above. To date, it is the only series of spaceflights to land humans on another world, and thus is widely respected and an inspiration for future spaceflights. The program used the Apollo spacecraft and Saturn launch vehicle, and was conducted during the years 1961 – 1975, with a total of six successful landings.
The later Skylab program and the joint American-Soviet Apollo-Soyuz Test Project used equipment originally produced for Apollo, and are often considered to be part of the overall Apollo program. As of 2007, there has not been any further human spaceflight beyond low earth orbit since the last mission in the Apollo program, Apollo 17.
Despite the many successes, there were two major failures, the first of which resulted in the deaths of three astronauts, Virgil Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee, in the Apollo 1 launchpad fire (the mission designation was AS-204, which was renamed Apollo 1 to honor the astronauts and their widows). The second was an in-space explosion on Apollo 13, which badly damaged the spacecraft on the moonward leg of its journey. The three astronauts aboard narrowly escaped with their lives, thanks to the efforts of flight controllers, project engineers, backup crew members and the skills of the astronauts themselves.
The Apollo program, specifically the lunar landings, are often cited as one of the greatest achievements in human history.

Background
See also: Moon landing
Once Kennedy had defined a goal, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a set of flights that could meet this stated goal while minimizing risk to human life, cost, and demands on technology and astronaut skill. Four possible mission modes were considered:
In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers feared that a rendezvous, which had never been attempted in space, would be impossible in lunar orbit. However, dissenters including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a valid and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spoke "somewhat as a voice in the wilderness," Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question. The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing in June 1962. NASA's formal decision in favor of LOR was announced on July 11, 1962. Space historian James Hansen concludes that:

Direct Ascent: A spacecraft would travel directly to the Moon, landing and returning as a unit. This plan would have required a very powerful booster, the planned Nova rocket.
Earth Orbit Rendezvous: Two Saturn V rockets would be launched, one carrying the spacecraft and one carrying a propulsion unit that would have enabled the spacecraft to escape earth orbit. After a docking in earth orbit, the spacecraft would have landed on the Moon as a unit.
Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft would be launched in succession. The first, an automated vehicle carrying propellants, would land on the Moon and would be followed some time later by the manned vehicle. Propellant would be transferred from the automated vehicle to the manned vehicle before the manned vehicle could return to Earth.
Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): One Saturn V would launch a spacecraft that was composed of modular parts. A command module would remain in orbit around the moon, while a lunar module would descend to the moon and then return to dock with the command module while still in lunar orbit. In contrast with the other plans, LOR required only a small part of the spacecraft to land on the Moon, thereby minimizing the mass to be launched from the Moon's surface for the return trip. Choosing a mission mode

Main article: Apollo spacecraft Spacecraft
The command module (CM) was conical in shape, and was designed to carry three astronauts from launch into lunar orbit and back from the moon to splashdown. Equipment carried by the command module included reaction control engines, a docking tunnel, guidance and navigation systems and the Apollo Guidance Computer. Attached to the command module was the service module (SM), which housed the service propulsion system and its propellants, the fuel cell power system, four maneuvering thruster quads, the S-band antenna for communication with Mission Control, and storage tanks for water and air. On Apollo 15, 16 and 17 it also carried a scientific instrument package. The two sections of the spacecraft would remain attached until just prior to re-entry, at which point the service module would be discarded. Only the command module was provided with a heat shield that would allow it and its passengers to survive the intense heat of re-entry. After re-entry it would deploy parachutes that would slow its descent through the atmosphere, allowing a smooth splashdown in the ocean.
Under the leadership of Harrison Storms, North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM for NASA. Relations between North American and NASA were strained during the Apollo program, particularly after the Apollo 1 fire during which three astronauts died. The cause of the accident was determined to be an electrical short in the wiring of the command module; while determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that "deficiencies existed in Command Module design, workmanship and quality control."

Command/service module
The Lunar Module (LM) (also known as Lunar Excursion Module, or LEM), was designed solely in order to land on the moon. It had no heat shield and was of a construction so lightweight that it would not have been able to fly in Earth gravity. It carried two crewmembers and consisted of two stages, a descent and an ascent stage. The descent stage incorporated compartments in which cargo such as the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package and Lunar Rover could be carried.
The contract for design and construction of the lunar module was awarded to Grumman, and the project was overseen by Tom Kelly. There were also problems with the lunar module; due to delays in the test program, the LM became what was known as a "pacing item," meaning that it was in danger of delaying the schedule of the whole Apollo program. Due to these issues, the Apollo missions were rescheduled so that the first manned mission with the lunar module would be Apollo 9, rather than Apollo 8 as was originally planned.

Lunar module
When the team of engineers led by Wernher von Braun began planning for the Apollo program, it was not yet clear what sort of mission their rocket boosters would have to support. Direct ascent would require a booster, the planned Nova rocket, which could lift a very large payload. NASA's decision in favor of lunar orbit rendezvous re-oriented the work of Marshall Spaceflight Center towards the development of the Saturn 1B and Saturn V. While these were less powerful than the Nova would have been, the Saturn V was still much more powerful than any booster developed before—or since.

Saturn V
The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the earlier Saturn I. It consisted of a first stage made up of eight H-1 engines and a second S-IVB stage which was identical to the Saturn V's third stage. The Saturn IB had only 1.6 million pounds of thrust in its first stage—compared to 7.5 million pounds for the Saturn V—but was capable of putting a command and lunar module into earth orbit. It was used in Apollo test missions and in both the Skylab program and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Program. In 1973 a refitted S-IVB stage, launched by a Saturn V, became the Skylab space station.

Saturn IB
See also: List of Apollo missions

Missions
In September 1967, the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas, proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing. Seven mission types were outlined, each testing a specific set of components and tasks; each previous step needed to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken. These were:
Later added to this were H missions, which were short duration stays on the Moon with two LEVAs ("moonwalks"). These were followed by the J missions, which were longer three day stays, with three LEVAs and the use of the lunar rover. Apollo 18 to 20 would have been J missions. In addition, a further group of flights — the I missions — were planned, which would have been long duration orbital missions using a Service Module bay loaded with scientific equipment. When it became obvious that later flights were being cancelled, such mission plans were brought into the J missions that were actually flown.

A - Unmanned Command/Service Module (CSM) test
B - Unmanned Lunar Module (LM) test
C - Manned CSM in low Earth orbit
D - Manned CSM and LM in low Earth orbit
E - Manned CSM and LM in an elliptical Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600 mi (7400 km)
F - Manned CSM and LM in lunar orbit
G - Manned lunar landing Mission types
Preparations for the Apollo program began long before the manned Apollo missions were flown. Test flights of the Saturn I booster began in October of 1961 and lasted until September 1964. Three further Saturn I launches carried boilerplate models of the Apollo command/service module. Tests of the launch escape system began in 1963 at the White Sands Missile Range and lasted until 1966.
The only unmanned missions to officially include Apollo as part of their name rather than serial number were Apollo 4, Apollo 5 and Apollo 6.
Apollo 6 was the last in the series of unmanned Apollo missions. It launched on 4 April 1968, and landed back on Earth almost ten hours later at 21:57:21 UTC.
Further information: List of Apollo missions#Unmanned missions

Unmanned missions
By the summer of 1968 it became clear to program managers that a fully functional LM would not be available for the Apollo 8 mission. Rather than perform a simple earth orbiting mission, they chose to send Apollo 8 around the moon during Christmas. The original idea for this switch was the brainchild of George Low. Although it has often been claimed that this change was made as a direct response to Soviet attempts to fly a piloted Zond spacecraft around the moon, there is no evidence that this was actually the case. NASA officials were aware of the Soviet Zond flights, but the timing of the Zond missions does not correspond well with the extensive written record from NASA about the Apollo 8 decision. It is relatively certain that the Apollo 8 decision was primarily based upon the LM schedule, rather than fear of the Soviets beating the Americans to the moon.
Between December 21, 1968 and May 18, 1969, NASA launched three Apollo missions (8, 9, and 10) using the Saturn V launch vehicle. Each mission had a crew of three astronauts, and the last two included Lunar Modules, but none of these was intended as a Moon landing mission. The next two flights (11 and 12) included successful Moon landings. The Apollo 13 mission was aborted before the landing attempt, but the crew returned safely to Earth. The four subsequent Apollo missions (14 through 17) included successful Moon landings. The last three of these were J-class missions that included the use of Lunar Rovers. The last Apollo mission returned safely to Earth on December 19, 1972.
Further information: List of Apollo missions#Manned missions

Manned missions

Main article: Moon rock Samples returned

Legacy

Main article: Canceled Apollo missions Canceled missions

Main article: Apollo Applications Program Apollo applications program
The Apollo program stimulated many areas of technology. The flight computer design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the Minuteman Missile System, the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits. The fuel cell developed for this program was the first practical fuel cell. Computer-controlled machining (CNC) was pioneered in fabricating Apollo structural components.
Many astronauts and cosmonauts have commented on the profound effects that seeing Earth from space has had on them. One of the most important legacies of the Apollo program was the now-common, but not universal, view of Earth as a fragile, small planet, captured in the photographs taken by the astronauts during the lunar missions. The most famous of these photographs, taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts, is "The Blue Marble". These photographs have also motivated many people toward environmentalism
The cost of the program is estimated at $135 billion (2006 dollars) ($25.4 billion in 1969 dollars). The Apollo spacecraft cost $28 billion (2006 dollars) to develop: $17 billion for the command and service modules, and $11 billion for the Lunar Module. The Saturn I, IB and V launch vehicle development cost about $46 billion.
It appears that much of the original film and telemetry data for the Apollo 11 mission is missing. For more information see Apollo program missing tapes.

Cultural legacy
Further information: List of future lunar missions

Influence on future human space exploration
Several nations have planned to land probes on the Moon as early as July 2007. Countries which have planned unmanned missions include: Japan, China, India, the United States, Russia, and Germany.

Unmanned
As of 2007, it has been thirty-five years since any human has walked on the Moon, with the last mission being Apollo 17 in 1972, and Eugene Cernan being the last person to walk on the Moon.
The words of Apollo 17 astronaut Eugene Cernan as he became the last person to set foot on the Moon (as of 2007).
Currently, several nations have planned future manned Moon landings, the earliest being the United States (NASA) who have announced plans to land on the Moon no later than 2020, in a speech by President Bush titled "The Vision for Space Exploration".
The next generation of NASA spacecraft, the Orion (Formerly the Crew Exploration Vehicle or CEV), which is to replace the Space Shuttle following its retirement in 2010, is influenced largely by the Apollo Program. The most notable difference is that the CEV will return to Earth on land, much like the Russian Soyuz spacecraft, rather than at sea as the Apollos did. Like Apollo, the CEV will fly a lunar orbit rendezvous mission profile, but unlike Apollo, the lander, known as the Lunar Surface Access Module, will be launched separately on the Ares V rocket, a rocket based on both Space Shuttle and Apollo technologies. Orion will be launched separately and will link up with the LSAM in low earth orbit like that of the Skylab program. Also, Orion, unlike Apollo, will remain unmanned in lunar orbit while the entire crew lands on the lunar surface, with the lunar polar regions in mind instead of the equatorial regions explored by Apollo. The ESA has planned to land on the Moon before 2020, and China, Russia, India, and Japan have planned to land by 2030.
Neil Armstrong, the commander of the first successful landing Apollo 11, is often asked by the press for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that a human voyage to Mars will be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s: "I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many, they are not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo (space program) in 1961." Armstrong also recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission. He had believed there was only a 50 percent chance of landing on the moon. "I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful," he said.

Manned

Apollo Missions Tracked by Independent Parties
Apollo Moon Landing hoax accusations
Apollo TV camera
Extra-vehicular activity
List of artificial objects on the Moon
Pad Abort Tests
Soviet Moonshot
Independent evidence for Apollo Moon landings Notes

"Discussion of Soviet Man-in-Space Shot," Hearing before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives, 87th Congress, First Session, April 13, 1961.
Hansen, James R. (1995). Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept. NASA. 
Launius, Roger; Howard McCurdy (1997). Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 
Murray, Charles; Catherine Bly Cox (1989). Apollo: The Race to the Moon. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-671-61101-1. 
Papike, James; Graham Ryder and Charles Shearer (1998). "Lunar Samples". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 36: 5.1-5.234. 
Sidey, Hugh (1963). John F. Kennedy, President. New York: Atheneum. 
Swenson, Jr., Loyd S.; Courtney G Brooks and James M. Grimwood (1979). Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft. NASA. 

Fetal screening refers to any tests that allow a fetus to be tested for certain traits or characteristics.
Most often this is performed to test for birth defects. Common procedures include amniocentesis, sonograms, nuchal translucency testing, or genetic screening. The tests can be used to check for conditions such as Down syndrome, spina bifida, cleft palate, Tay Sachs disease, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, and fragile x syndrome. In some cases, the tests are administered to determine if the fetus will be aborted.
In some cases, fetal screening has been done to determine characteristics generally not considered birth defects. In some parts of the world, if a fetus is determined to be female, it is sometimes aborted. The rise of designer babies and parental selection for specific traits raises a host of bioethical and legal issues that will dominate reproductive rights debates in the 21st century.

William Howard Stein (June 25, 1911 – February 2, 1980) was an American biochemist.
He was born and died in New York City.
He won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1972 with Christian Boehmer Anfinsen and Stanford Moore, for their work on ribonuclease and for their contribution to the understanding of the connection between chemical structure and catalytic activity of the ribonuclease molecule.
van 't Hoff (1901) • E.Fischer (1902) • Arrhenius (1903) • Ramsay (1904) • von Baeyer (1905) • Moissan (1906) • Buchner (1907) • Rutherford (1908) • Ostwald (1909) • Wallach (1910) • Curie (1911) • Grignard / Sabatier (1912) • Werner (1913) • Richards (1914) • Willstätter (1915) • Haber (1918) • Nernst (1920) • Soddy (1921) • Aston (1922) • Pregl (1923) • Zsigmondy (1925)
Svedberg (1926) • Wieland (1927) • Windaus (1928) • Harden / von Euler‑Chelpin (1929) • H.Fischer (1930) • Bosch / Bergius (1931) • Langmuir (1932) • Urey (1934) • F.Joliot-Curie / I.Joliot-Curie (1935) • Debye (1936) • Haworth / Karrer (1937) • Kuhn (1938) • Butenandt / Ružička (1939) • de Hevesy (1943) • Hahn (1944) • Virtanen (1945) • Sumner / Northrop / Stanley (1946) • Robinson (1947) • Tiselius (1948) • Giauque (1949) • Diels / Alder (1950)
McMillan / Seaborg (1951) • Martin / Synge (1952) • Staudinger (1953) • Pauling (1954) • du Vigneaud (1955) • Hinshelwood / Semyonov (1956) • Todd (1957) • Sanger (1958) • Heyrovský (1959) • Libby (1960) • Calvin (1961) • Perutz / Kendrew (1962) • Ziegler / Natta (1963) • Hodgkin (1964) • Woodward (1965) • Mulliken (1966) • Eigen / Norrish / Porter (1967) • Onsager (1968) • Barton / Hassel (1969) • Leloir (1970) • Herzberg (1971) • Anfinsen / Moore / Stein (1972) • E.O.Fischer / Wilkinson (1973) • Flory (1974) • Cornforth / Prelog (1975)
Lipscomb (1976) • Prigogine (1977) • Mitchell (1978) • Brown / Wittig (1979) • Berg / Gilbert / Sanger (1980) • Fukui / Hoffmann (1981) • Klug (1982) • Taube (1983) • Merrifield (1984) • Hauptman / Karle (1985) • Herschbach / Lee / Polanyi (1986) • Cram / Lehn / Pedersen (1987) • Deisenhofer / Huber / Michel (1988) • Altman / Cech (1989) • Corey (1990) • Ernst (1991) • Marcus (1992) • Mullis / Smith (1993) • Olah (1994) • Crutzen / Molina / Rowland (1995) • Curl / Kroto / Smalley (1996) • Boyer / Walker / Skou (1997) • Kohn / Pople (1998) • Zewail (1999) • Heeger / MacDiarmid / Shirakawa (2000)
Knowles / Noyori / Sharpless (2001) • Fenn / Tanaka / Wüthrich (2002) • Agre / MacKinnon (2003) • Ciechanover / Hershko / Rose (2004) • Grubbs / Schrock / Chauvin (2005) • Kornberg (2006)
Complete roster | (1901–1925) | (1926–1950) | (1951–1975) | (1976-2000) | (2001–2025)

Manila Bay is one of the finest natural harbors in the world which serves the port of Manila (on Luzon), in the Philippines. The entrance is 19 km wide and expands to a width of 48 km. Mariveles, in the province of Bataan, is an anchorage just inside the northern entrance and Sangley Point is the former location of Cavite Naval Base.
On either side of the bay are volcanic peaks topped with tropical foliage: 40 km to the north is the Bataan Peninsula and to the south is the province of Cavite.
Across the entrance to Manila Bay are several islands. The largest is Corregidor, which is 3 kilometers from Bataan and, along with the island of Caballo, separates the mouth of the bay into the North and South Channels. In the south channel is El Fraile Island and outside the entrance, and to the south, is Carabao Island. El Fraile, a rocky island some 4 acres (16,000 m²) in area, supports the massive concrete and steel ruins of Fort Drum, an island fortress constructed by the United States Army to defend the southern entrance of the bay. To the immediate north and south are additional harbors.
The bay was the setting for the Battle of Manila Bay in 1898 and the siege of Corregidor Island by invading Japanese forces in 1942.

Kuwait is a small, relatively open economy with proven crude oil reserves of about 96 billion barrels (15 km³), i.e. about 10% of world reserves. Petroleum accounts for nearly half of GDP, 90% of export revenues, and 75% of government income. Kuwait lacks water and has practically no arable land, thus preventing development of agriculture. With the exception of fish, it depends almost wholly on food imports. About 75% of potable water must be distilled or imported. Higher oil prices reduced the budget deficit from $5.5 billion to $3 billion in 1999, and prices are expected to remain relatively strong throughout 2000. The government is proceeding slowly with reforms. It inaugurated Kuwait's first free-trade zone in 1999 and will continue discussions with foreign oil companies to develop fields in the northern part of the country.

Economy in greater depth
This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Kuwait at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Kuwaiti Dinars.
For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 0.48 Kuwaiti Dinars only.
Kuwait is a small country with massive oil reserves, whose economy has been traditionally dominated by the state and its oil industry. During the 1970s, Kuwait benefited from the dramatic rise in oil prices, which Kuwait actively promoted through its membership in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). The economy suffered from the triple shock of a 1982 securities market crash, the mid-1980s drop in oil prices, and the 1990 Iraqi invasion and occupation. The Kuwaiti Government-in-exile depended upon its $100 billion in overseas investments during the Iraqi occupation in order to help pay for the reconstruction. Thus, by 1993, this balance was cut to less than half of its pre-invasion level. The wealth of Kuwait is based primarily on oil and capital reserves, and the Iraqi occupation severely damaged both.
In the closing hours of the Gulf War in February 1991, the Iraqi occupation forces set ablaze or damaged 749 of Kuwait's oil wells. All of these fires were extinguished within a year. Production has been restored, and refineries and facilities have been modernized. Oil exports surpassed their pre-invasion levels in 1993 with production levels only constrained by OPEC quotas.

Macro-economic trend
In 1934, the ruler of Kuwait granted an oil concession to the Kuwait Oil Co. (KOC), jointly owned by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (later British Petroleum Company) and Gulf Oil Corp. In 1976, the Kuwaiti Government nationalized KOC. The following year, Kuwait took over onshore production in the Divided Zone between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. KOC produces jointly there with Texaco, Inc., which, by its 1984 purchase of Getty Oil Co., acquired the Saudi Arabian onshore concession in the Divided Zone.
In the Offshore Divided Zone, the Arabian Oil Co. – 80% owned by Japanese interests and 10% each by the Kuwaiti and Saudi Governments – has produced on behalf of both countries since 1961. The original concession agreements will expire in January 2003; negotiations to replace the concession with a technical service agreement should be completed in 2002.
The Kuwait Petroleum Corporation. (KPC), an integrated international oil company, is the parent company of the government's operations in the petroleum sector, and includes Kuwait Oil Company, which produced oil and gas; Kuwait National Petroleum Co., refining and domestic sales; Petrochemical Industries Co., producing ammonia and urea; Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration Co., with several concessions in developing countries; Kuwait Oil Tanker Co.; and Santa Fe International Corp. The latter, purchased outright in 1982, gives KPC a worldwide presence in the petroleum industry.
KPC also has purchased from Gulf Oil Co. refineries and associated service stations in the Benelux nations and Scandinavia, as well as storage facilities and a network of service stations in Italy. In 1987, KPC bought a 19% share in British Petroleum, which was later reduced to 10%. KPC markets its products in Europe under the brand Q8 and is interested in the markets of the United States and Japan.
Kuwait has about 94 billion barrels (15 km³) of recoverable oil reserves. Estimated capacity, before the war, was about 2.4 million barrels (380,000 m³) per day. During the Iraqi occupation, Kuwait's oil-producing capacity was reduced to practically nothing. However, tremendous recovery and improvements have been made. Oil production was 1.5 million barrels (240,000 m³) per day by the end of 1992, and pre-war capacity was restored in 1993. Kuwait's production capacity is estimated to be 2.5 million barrels (400,000 m³) per day. Kuwait plans to increase its capacity to 3.5 million (560,000 m³) barrels per day by 2005.
Algeria • Angola • Indonesia • Iran • Iraq • Kuwait • Libya • Nigeria • Qatar • Saudi Arabia • United Arab Emirates • Venezuela

Oil
The government has sponsored many social welfare, public works, and development plans financed with oil and investment revenues. Among the benefits for Kuwaiti citizens are retirement income, marriage bonuses, housing loans, virtually guaranteed employment, free medical services, and education at all levels. Foreign nationals residing in Kuwait obtain some, but not all, of the welfare services. The right to own stock in publicly traded companies, real estate, and banks or a majority interest in a business is limited to Kuwaiti citizens and citizens of GCC states under limited circumstances.

Social benefits
Industry in Kuwait consists of several large export-oriented petrochemical units, oil refineries, and a range of small manufacturers. It also includes large water desalinization, ammonia, desulfurization, fertilizer, brick, block, and cement plants. During the invasion, the Iraqis looted nearly all movable items of worth, especially high-technology items and small machinery. Much of this has been replaced with newer equipment.

Agriculture
The Kuwait Oil Tankers Co. has 35 crude oil and refined product carriers and is the largest tanker company in an OPEC country. Kuwait also is a member of the United Arab Shipping Company.

Shipping
The Kuwaiti dinar is a strong currency pegged to a basket of currencies in which the U.S. dollar has the most weight. Kuwait ordinarily runs a balance-of-payments surplus.
Government revenues are dependent on oil revenues. Kuwait's fiscal surplus in 2000 was some 15% of GDP, while it reversed to a deficit of more that 2% of GDP in 2001 on sliding oil prices.
The government's two reserve funds: the Fund for Future Generations and the General Reserve Fund, which totalled nearly $100 billion prior to the invasion in 1990, were the primary source of capital for the Kuwaiti Government during the war. While these funds were depleted to $40-$50 billion after the war, they currently are estimated around $208 billion. The bulk of this reserve is invested in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, and Southeast Asia. In order of importance, foreign assets are believed to be invested in stocks and bonds, fixed yield instruments (mostly short term), and real estate. Kuwait follows a generally conservative investment policy.
Kuwait has been a major source of foreign economic assistance to other states through the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, an autonomous state institution created in 1961 on the pattern of Western and international development agencies. In 1974, the fund's lending mandate was expanded to include all – not just Arab – developing countries.
Over the years aid was provided to Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, as well as the Palestine Liberation Organization. During the Iran-Iraq war, significant Kuwaiti aid was given to the Iraqis. The Kuwait fund issued loans and technical assistance grants totaling over $520 million during its fiscal year ending 30 June 2000.
The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Kuwait was valued at $130,080 million in 2005 by the World Bank.[2]

Other statistics

Kuwait Investment Authority